The Rite of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass

35. The Incensing of the Altar

At the solemn High Mass (Missa solemnis)¹⁰³103By Missa solemnis is to be understood here in a stricter sense only that and every high Mass, in which the ministri sacri (deacon and sub-deacon) participate; for the incensing, according to a later decree, is a rite pertaining exclusively to the high Mass celebrated with deacon and sub-deacon, and may never be omitted therein (not even in Missis ferialibus Quadragesimae). (S. R. C. 19. Aug. 1651; 14. Jun. 1845; 29. Nov. 1856.) But since in many churches no ministri sacri are present, several dioceses have obtained an Apostolic Indult, which at least occurrentibus solemnioribus festis permits also for the Missa cantata the customary incensing to take place. (Cf. Bourbon, Introduct. aux cérém. rom. p. 330 ss.) immediately after the prayers at the foot of the altar, the incensing takes place.¹⁰⁴104In the East the incensing of the altar at the beginning of Mass was introduced already in the fourth century; for Pseudo-Denis the Areopagite writes: “After the bishop has recited at the altar of God the holy prayer, he commences the incensing of the altar and walks around the entire circumference of the sacred place” (The Hierarchy of the Church III, 2). — In the West, on the contrary, mention is first made of the incensing of the altar before the Introit about the middle of the twelfth century. The Ordo Rom. XI, n. 18, namely, directs: Ascendens Pontifex... ad altare, facit confessionem, osculatur Evangelium... et intrat ad altare, et inclinato capite dicit orationem, qua peracta osculatur altare... accipit capsam et ponit incensum in thuribulum et incensat altare et archidiaconus retinet planetam, ne impediatur. — In quibusdam ecclesiis sacerdos ad altare accedens statim thurificat (Robert. Paulul. De offic. eccles. l. 2, c. 14). The explanation of this rite may be prefaced by a few remarks concerning the use and symbolism of incense in general.

1. By the express command of God¹⁰⁵105Voluit Deus hos odores sibi adoleri, non quod odoratu thymiamatis delectetur, cum nullum habeat odoratum... sed quia magnus inter homines censetur honor, suaves cuipiam apponere vel suffumigare odores: hinc Deus, qui cum hominibus humano more agit, voluit eosdem ad sui cultum coram se adoleri. Sic omnium gentium consuetudine et ritu thuris et odorum incensio attributa est Deo; hinc poëtae “thuris honores” vocant honores divinos, et tres Magi haec tria munera dederunt Christo, scilicet: “aurum regi, thura Deo, myrrhamque sepulto.” Unde et nos christiani thurificamus Deo (Cornel. a Lapide in Exod. 30, 1). in the Old Law incense was already frequently used for liturgical purposes. Then indeed incense might be offered only to the Lord, might be burned only in honor of Jehovah. Incense was “holy to the Lord;” the Lord Himself minutely directed how it was to be prepared and mixed, where and how often it was to be burned (Exodus 30, 1 etc.). In the sanctuary, which was separated by a veil from the Holy of Holies, stood the altar for the offering of incense; on this altar every day, morning and night, a special incense-offering had to be made to the Lord. Also at the great propitiatory sacrifice on the feast of reconciliation and at the offering of the show-bread, incense (thus lucidissimum) was accepted and burned as an additional gift. — The Fathers unanimously teach that the Wise Men from the East, by the offering of incense intended symbolically to adore the Child Jesus, “the King of the Jews,” as the God concealed and revealed under the garb of earthly lowliness.¹⁰⁶106Per ista tria munerum genera in uno eodemque Christo et divina majestas et regia potestas et humana mortalitas intimatur. Thus enim ad sacrificium, aurum pertinet ad tributum, myrrha ad sepulturam pertinet mortuorum (S. Fulgent. Sermo 4). Incense found a place in Christian worship already at an early date,¹⁰⁷107Among the heathens also incense was prominently destined for sacrifice; the devil wished to have the same marks of honor shown to him by the idolaters as God required of His people. To offer incense to the pagan gods was always reckoned among Christians as apostasy from the faith. and was more universally used especially from the time of the fourth century,¹⁰⁸108The first positive proof with respect to the liturgical use of incense in the West is found in St. Ambrose. When, namely, this holy Doctor of the Church speaks of the apparition of the angel to Zachary (Luke 1, 5–25), he adds: “May we also, when incensing the altar (nobis adolentibus altaria) and when offering the Holy Sacrifice, have an angel at our side.” when divine worship began to be more freely and more splendidly developed. The present liturgical practice in the use of incense was perfectly developed in the West only during the Middle Age. In the Greek liturgies there is far more frequent mention of incense than in the Latin Rite. — At divine service only pure incense is to be employed; the best comes from Africa, where it is obtained from the boswellia (incense-tree).¹⁰⁹109Incense is a resinous gum which oozes from the bark of a tree, dries in the air, is collected by scraping it from the bark and is used in commerce. To the incense other odoriferous substances, for instance, rosin or herbs, may be added, but only in a considerably smaller quantity.¹¹⁰110Materies, quae adhibetur, vel solum et purum thus esse debet suavis odoris; vel si aliqua addantur, advertatur, ut quantitas thuris longe superet (Ceremon. Episcop. l. 1, c. 23, n. 3). — Incense is sold in the form of grains or as a powder.

The burning in the religious service of this precious, noble and fragrant incense is a splendid rite, which not only contributes much solemnity to the celebration of divine worship, but also symbolically represents the mysteries of faith and the virtues of the Christian life.¹¹¹111The Tridentine Council places the incensing at divine worship (thymiama) expressly among the visibilia religionis et pietatis signa, which incite and elevate the mind to the devout contemplation of heavenly things (Sess. 22, cap. 5). — Cf. Kölner Pastoralbl. Jahrg. 1875, S. 17 etc. The symbolism of incense consists essentially in this, that the grains of incense are dissolved by the heat of the coals, thereby diffusing a sweet odor which ascends heavenward in fragrant clouds, filling the sanctuary and the whole church. Consequently, the liturgical incensation, that is, only the lighted, burning incense (incensum sc. thus), has in reality a symbolical meaning, and this meaning is lost, if there be no odor arising from the incense, or the glow of fire be wanting, or if burning coals are not used (prunae ardentes—Pontif. Rom).

The fragrant incense, burning in the fire, has, as it were, been created as a symbol, as a solemn expression of the interior sentiments of sacrifice¹¹²112The Latin and Greek name of incense (thus, θυμίαμα from θύειν = to offer, but originally to dissolve into smoke, fumigating) indicates its intimate connection with the Sacrifice. Since incense is destroyed and consumed in the fire, there are found in it all the requisite elements for a sacrifice (material and form), and if the legitimate institution is added, then it is a real sacrifice. This was the case in the Old Law. In the New Law, on the contrary, the burning of incense is only a ceremony prescribed by the Church, which serves for the liturgical adornment and symbolism of the Eucharistic Sacrifice. — Sometimes thymiama (from θυμιάω, I light) is taken as perfumes in a wider sense, and mentioned separately from real incense (thus) (cf. Pontif. Rom. De benedict. signi). and of prayer acceptable to God. The perfume of a plant is its most delicate and most noble part, and, so to speak, “its hidden, sleeping vitality,” for example, the fragrance of the balm-tree, the rose and the violet. Hence incense exhales and breathes p. 50forth its inmost soul when it is consumed in the fire and dissolved in fragrant clouds of smoke, that rise heavenward. It thereby symbolizes, first, man’s spirit of sacrifice or his life of sacrifice, for he consumes himself with all his faculties in the fire of love for the honor and service of God. Then the odor of incense which arises from the burning grains and ascends in its fragrance, also symbolizes prayer. Prayer is the surrender of the soul to God, the elevation of the mind and spirit to Heaven, the aspiration of the heart toward goods invisible and eternal. If the grains of incense be cast on burning coals, a pleasant odor will arise; if the heart, like unto a glowing coal, is set on fire with the flames of divine love and ardent devotion, then our prayer will free itself from all that is earthly, and will ascend to the Lord as a sweet and precious perfume, that is to say, our prayer will be received with favor and pleasure and will be answered by Him.¹¹³113Thuribulum est cor humanum, ignis caritas, thus oratio: sicut thus cum igne in thuribulo redolet et sursum ascendit, sic oratio cum caritate in corde ultra omnia pigmenta (aromatics, perfumes) fragrescit (Sicard l. 1, c. 13). Hence the Psalmist exclaims: Dirigatur, Domine, oratio mea sicut incensum in conspectu tuo! — “Let my prayer be directed as incense in Thy sight, O Lord!” (Ps. 140, 2.) Scripture represents the prayers of the saints under the figure of golden vials full of sweet odors,¹¹⁴114Orationes Sanctorum comparantur hic suffitui, non cuivis, sed odoramentorum 1. quia oratio instar thuris sursum ascendit; 2. quia sicut thus odoratum ita orationes Sanctorum Deum oblectant; 3. uti thus foetorem, ita oratio peccatum abigit Deique iram mitigat; 4. thymiama fiebat ex aromatibus contusis: sic oratio ex animo mortificato et humili procedere debet; 5. thymiama in igne adolebatur; ita oratio in igne tribulationum exardescit (Cornel. a Lapide, in Exod. 30, 34). which the ancients bear in their hands, standing before the throne of the Lamb (habentes singuli phialas aureas plenas odoramentorum, quae sunt orationes Sanctorum—Apoc. 5, 8). Adoration, praises, thanksgivings and petitions, like odoriferous incense, penetrate to the heavenly Holy of Holies—as far as the throne of the Almighty.

From the original meaning of incense another naturally suggests itself. The “smoke of agreeable odors,” symbolizing sacrifice and prayer, or, rather, sacrifice and prayer themselves excite the divine pleasure and mercy, and draw down upon us God’s grace; hence divine grace also is figured by the odor of incense (bonus odor gratiae). While the odor of ascending incense denotes devout sacrifice and prayer penetrating to heaven, the clouds of incense floating round about signify the effects of prayer and sacrifice,—namely, the sweet odor of grace descending from Heaven or issuing from Christ on the altar.¹¹⁵115Cf. the prayer at the incensing of the offerings: Incensum istud a te benedictum, ascendat ad te, Domine: et descendat super nos misericordia tua (Miss. Rom.). — Vespertina oratio ascendat ad te, Domine—et descendat super nos misericordia tua (Breviar. Roman.). Prayer ascends and God’s mercy descends.

The fragrant clouds of incense are for the priest and people also p. 51an admonition so to live as to become, by sacrifice and the spirit of prayer, by the wealth of grace and virtue, by devotion of heart and piety, a spiritual “good odor of Christ” (Christi bonus odor—2 Cor. 2, 15),¹¹⁶116Per thuribulum cor humanum competenter notatur . . . habens ignem caritatis et thus devotionis sive suavissimae orationis seu bonorum exemplorum sursum tendentium, quod per fumum inde resultantem notatur. Sicut enim thus in igne thuribuli suaviter redolet et sursum ascendit, ita opus bonum vel oratio ex caritate ultra omnia thymiamata fragrat (Durand. l. 4, c. 6, n. 6). in order to give joy to heaven and earth.¹¹⁷117Res sacras, ut Dei et Sanctorum basilicas, variis suavissimorum odorum replere generibus, optimum ac Deo honorificum est—sic enim internam erga eum reverentiam testamur, quod Ecclesia, festis praesertim solemnioribus, eo fine faciendum instituit; cumque templa sic suave olentia ingredimur, puros ac sanctos odores illos percipiendo, debemus ex his perceptis mentem ad coelestia meditanda sursum erigere, orationem nostram sicut incensum ad Deum dirigere et ad virtutis exercitium nos excitare, ut sic bonus odor Christi simus in omni loco (Philipp. a SS. Trinit. Theol. myst. 1, p. 1, tr. 2, art. 5).

The very nature of the thing itself indicates in the burning of the grains of incense chiefly a symbol of adoration, or rather of the sacrifice as the most perfect act and expression of adoration; but it is to be observed, that in the intention of the Church incense is not exclusively employed to render the highest honor due to God alone, that is, to manifest interior adoration in a solemn manner, but also generally to denote religious veneration towards that which is holy. Therefore, besides the Most Blessed Sacrament, the relics and images of the saints, the Book of the Gospels, the celebrant, the clergy and the people are incensed.

At Solemn High Mass the incense is blessed,¹¹⁸118Incense, as a rule (even coram exposito), must be blessed when put into the thurible. The blessing must be omitted when the Most Holy Sacrament alone is to be incensed, for example, at Expositions or Processions of the Blessed Sacrament, because in this instance incense is regarded merely as a symbol, and not as a Sacramental. In the Mass of the Presanctified on Good Friday the blessing of the incense is likewise omitted as a sign of mourning, although in addition to the Consecrated Host the altar also is incensed. The petition for blessing the incense is addressed (by the deacon) to the celebrant in reverential words; if he be a priest, the formula is as follows: Benedicite, Pater reverende; if a bishop: Benedicite, Pater reverendissime; if a cardinal: Benedicite, Pater eminentissime. — The priest must always stand when putting the incense into the thurible. (Cf. Ceremon. Episc. l. 1, c. 23, n. 18; l. 2, c. 22, n. 11. — Quarti l. c. dub. 2.) that is, made a holy object consecrated to God. Blessed incense is a Sacramental: as such it not merely signifies something ennobled and mystical, but it has also (in its way) supernatural effects.

In consequence of this blessing, it is evident that the incense appears expressly and perfectly as a holy and religious symbol. The symbolism of incense is indeed founded in its very nature, and is clearly set forth in its use at divine worship, which already, in a certain way, imparts a consecration to it; but it is really perfected and forcibly expressed, in the first place, by the blessing of the p. 52Church, for the incense (like ashes and palm) appears only when blessed in the complete light of a holy and mystical symbol.

As a Sacramental incense is, then, a means to secure the divine protection and blessing. By virtue of the sign of the Cross and the blessing of the Church incense is especially made efficacious for expelling or keeping at a distance Satan from the soul, and for affording us a powerful protection against the deceit and malice, the snares and the attacks of evil spirits, a protection we greatly need at the altar and during the celebration of the Holy Mysteries. Before the incense is burned on the altar that is about to be consecrated, the bishop prays Almighty God, that He “would deign to look down upon this incense, that He would bless and sanctify it, to the end that all sicknesses and infirmities, as well as every snare of the Evil One may flee from its sweet odor, and that the creature (man) redeemed by the precious Blood of Christ may never be wounded by the bite of the infernal serpent.”¹¹⁹119Domine Deus omnipotens . . . dignare respicere, benedicere et sanctificare hanc creaturam incensi, ut omnes languores omnesque infirmitates atque insidiae inimici odorem ejus sentientes effugiant et separentur a plasmate tuo, quod pretioso Filii tui sanguine redemisti, ut nunquam laedatur a morsu iniqui serpentis (Pontific. Roman. De ecclesiae dedicatione). — Blessed incense produces yet another effect: it is used for the blessing of persons and of things. For with the clouds of incense is diffused the power of the blessing which the Church pronounces and desires to impart; they draw all who are incensed into a sanctified atmosphere.

From what has just been explained concerning the symbolism and efficacy of incense, the purport and meaning of the different incensings in particular is easily inferred.

3. The ascending clouds of the fragrant incense clothe the celebration of divine worship with additional majesty, pomp and solemnity; therefore has the Church honored and distinguished many of her liturgical functions by the use of incense,—among the number the highest and most important of all, the solemn celebration of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, in quite a prominent and profoundly significant manner. The light clouds of incense soaring heavenward envelop the altar and fill the sanctuary throughout with their agreeable fragrance, most befittingly express and recommend the majesty of so great a Sacrifice, and make the earthly appear more evidently a copy of the heavenly altar (Apoc. 8, 3). — The incensation takes place at the beginning of the general divine service, that is, between the prayers at the foot of the altar and the Introit, as well as at the beginning of the special sacrificial service, namely, during the Offertory; also at the culminating point of each of these principal parts of the Mass, namely, at the Gospel wherein the Lord is teacher, and at the Consecration when He appears in sacrifice on the altar. The cloud of incense is also symbolical of the appearance, that is, of the presence of the Lord in the Blessed Sacrament and in His word; for already in the Old Covenant the glory of the Lord p. 53appeared in the cloud of the Tabernacle (Exodus 40, 32; Leviticus 16, 2; Paralip. 5, 13), and on the great Day of Atonement the high-priest enveloped the Holy of Holies of the Old Testament with clouds of incense in token of Jehovah’s revelation on that most sacred spot.

The first incensing at High Mass may be regarded as a solemn conclusion of the preparatory prayers at the foot of the altar; the rite is simple and is performed without any accompanying prayer. The celebrant places incense three times on the glowing coals, while saying: Ab illo benedicaris—in cujus honore—cremaberis. — Amen.¹²⁰120In former editions of the Ceremon. Episcop. we read in honorem (l. 1, c. 23, n. 1); but the new editio typica (Ratisbonae 1886) has in honore. The original and correct mode of reading is without doubt in cujus honore. — The Vulgate, the ancient liturgies and the entire vulgar-Latin literature construe the proposition (to the question where? or why?) frequently in the ablative instead of in the accusative. Clichtoveus gives the fourth stanza of the hymn Iste confessor thus: Unde nunc noster chorus in honore—Ipsius hymnum canit hunc libenter. In the liturgy for Good Friday the Church sings: Ecce enim propter lignum venit gaudium in universo mundo. — The Ord. Rom. XIV, c. 71, has the formula: Ab ipso sanctificeris, in cujus honore cremaberis. “Be thou blessed by Him in whose honor thou wilt be consumed. Amen.” Only after these words does he make the sign of the Cross over the burning grains of incense. This formula of blessing declares the principal object of the incensing—the glorification of the divine name. Incense is used at divine worship because of its exquisite odor, not to afford man a sensuous gratification, but to evince profound reverence toward the divine mysteries. In the first place, the Crucifix on the altar, or the Blessed Sacrament,¹²¹121Sacerdos dum incensum ponit in thuribulo stare debet; ab eodem vero Ss. Eucharistiae Sacramentum thurificandum est triplici ductu, sed genibus flexis et tam ante quam post incensationem profunda facta capitis inclinatione (S. R. C. 26. Mart. 1859 in una Tarnov.). — But every ductus thuribuli is performed duplici ictu (S. R. C. 22. Mart. 1862). is honored by incense, that is, due adoration is offered to the Lord in His image or in His Sacrament. — If the Blessed Sacrament be not exposed, then the relics or images of the saints on the altar are incensed. This incensing is an eminent sign of veneration paid to the blessed in heaven, who diffuse an agreeable odor like unto cinnamon and sweet-smelling balm and like precious myrrh (Ecclus. 24, 20); then as a mark of honor it ought to move them to obtain, by their powerful intercession, mercy for us at the throne of God and a favorable answer to our petitions. The priest, having just ascended the altar, and relying upon the intercession of the saints, has just prayed to God for perfect purity of heart: the fragrant clouds of incense which envelop the altar are now emblematical of the aforesaid prayers and merits of the saints, and, consequently, express in a symbolical manner the same petition that had immediately before been presented in words, that is, the petition for the assistance of the saints. — The altar solemnly consecrated by the bishop and enriched with relics, is the most sacred place of sacrifice—Sancta sanctorum p. 54—and is to be regarded and revered with religious awe. The incensing of the altar symbolizes and calls to mind the sublime holiness of the consecrated altar. — The blessed clouds of incense, therefore, not merely admonish us, but also obtain for us from above the necessary assistance to enter with a pure intention into the Holy of Holies, to stand at the altar and to celebrate the Most Holy Sacrifice with a devout heart. — The fragrant clouds of smoking incense signify, at the same time, that this Sacrifice, by the power of the Holy Ghost, will ascend to Heaven as a “sweet odor” and be for us the source of all spiritual odors of grace.¹²²122Domine sancte . . . respice ad hujus altaris tui holocaustum, quod non igne visibili probetur, sed infusum sancti Spiritus tui gratia in odorem suavitatis ascendat et legitime se sumentibus Eucharistia medicabilis fiat ad vitamque proficiat sempiternam (Pontific. Roman. De ecclesiae dedicat. seu consecrat.). — Finally, the celebrant himself, and he alone as the visible representative of the invisible Highpriest, Jesus Christ, receives by the threefold incensing the veneration due to his sacred character.

The incensing at the beginning of Mass is intended mainly for the altar,¹²³123The altar, as far as is convenient, is incensed all around, and the rear of the altar also toward the six symmetrically arranged candlesticks (incensat altare, ter ducens thuribulum aequali distantia, prout distribuuntur candelabra—Missal. Rom.); the candlesticks are, therefore, not incensed. Cf. Lebrun p. 1, art. 9. which by the Heaven-blest fumes of mystic incense pervading its surrounding atmosphere is characterized, distinguished and honored as the holy and venerated place of sacrifice and adoration. — The ceremony of incensing, so solemn, so significant and so edifying, should also move those present to devout and holy sentiments, and, as incense is consumed by the heat of the coals, should inspire them at the same time with the thought that their life should, amid the fire and flames of love, like unto a precious holocaust, be dedicated to the honor and service of God.

36. The Introit¹²⁴124The Introit is called in the Ambrosian Rite ingressa, in the Mozarabic officium and in the old Gallican praelegere or antiphona ad praelegendum. Amalarius writes: Officium quod dicitur introitus Missae, habet initium a prima antiphona, quae dicitur Introitus, et finitur in oratione, quae a sacerdote dicitur ante lectionem (De eccles. offic. l. 3, c. 5).

1. Over many of the formulas for Mass we meet with an inscription which requires a brief explanation; it is said, for example, Statio ad S. Petrum = Station at the Church of St. Peter; Statio ad S. Caeciliam = Station at St. Caecilia’s. These words indicate the church wherein, before the exile of the Popes at Avignon, on the aforesaid Saint’s day the Divine Sacrifice was offered up after the clergy and laity had gone in solemn procession to the Station Church, where the procession halted (statio), and the Divine Sacrifice was offered. These stations were, therefore, a particular kind of religious assembly, arranged for fixed days and certain churches of the city of p. 55Rome, wherein was to be celebrated divine service in a solemn manner.¹²⁵125Statio hoc loco sumitur pro concursu populi ad locum indictum, i. e. ad ecclesiam, in qua processio clericorum consistit statis diebus ad statas preces faciendas. Antiquus quippe in Urbe ritus est, ut certis diebus clerus Romanus in unam aliquam ecclesiam conveniat supplicationis causa, ubi sacra fiunt aliaque divina officia. Cleri Romani processio in illas stationes duplex est, solemnis aut privata. Haec fit, cum unusquisque privatim in locum indictum se recipit; solemnis vero, cum solemni more, decantando litanias aliasque preces, Pontifex aliique omnes eo sese recipiunt. Processiones solemnes praecedit Collecta, i. e. coadunatio clericorum in una ecclesia, ut ex ea, quasi agmine facto, in locum stationis procedatur; sic dicta, quod in eo loco clerus cum populo colligatur ad faciendam processionem solemnem. Et quia in loco, ubi fit Collecta, oratio super populum funditur ante processionem, inde fit, quod ejusmodi orationes etiam Collectae appellantur, quoniam super Collectam populi fiunt, dum colligitur, ut procedat de una ecclesia in aliam ad Stationem faciendam, ut loquitur Micrologus in cap. 3 (Mabillon, in Ordinem Romanum commentarius praevius V). The complete celebration of the Station was threefold: the assembling in a certain church, the procession to the Station Church, and the holding of divine worship therein. — Clergy and laity, in the first place, assembled in a church in which the religious celebration was opened by the singing of Psalms and by a prayer of the celebrant. This preparatory assembly was called Collecta.¹²⁶126Thus, for example, on Ember Wednesday: Feria IV. statio ad Sanctam Mariam Majorem. Fit collecta ad Sanctum Petrum ad Vincula in Eudoxia (Ordo Roman. XI, n. 10). Thence they proceeded processionally to the Station Church: the banner of the Cross was carried at the head of the procession, on the way Psalms were chanted, and on nearing the church the Litany of the Saints, whence the processions received the name of Litaniae.¹²⁷127The expression Litaniae (λιτανεία—rogatio, supplicatio) originally designated every prayer of supplication, but later on especially public prayers, in which the saints were invoked and which were recited at processions (preces, quibus invocatione Dei et Sanctorum desideratam nobis divinae propitiationis abundantiam efficacius impetramus—Quarti), and, therefore, also these penitential and supplicatory prayers at processions. The simple invocation Kyrie eleison joined thereto is also called Litania or Letania, for example, in the Rule of St. Benedict and in the Roman Ordines. In the Church of the Station there was usually a homily delivered (by the Pope) and the Holy Sacrifice was celebrated.

The Stations were often accompanied by the observance of fasting¹²⁸128Therefore statio is also a designation for fasting; dies stationum also—fast-days. and of penitential practices; such penitential Stations took place during Advent and Lent, on the Ember days and vigils,—occasionally also at special times, when there was question of averting the chastisements and visitations of God, for instance, pestilence, famine and war. — There were also held joyful Stations, for example, such as fell on Sundays and feast-days, or which were instituted for the annual commemoration of the more famous saints.

Stations in the seven principal churches of Rome were particularly frequent;¹²⁹129They were called: 1. S. Giovanni in Laterano, 2. S. Pietro in Vaticano, 3. S. Maria Maggiore, 4. S. Paolo fuori le mura, 5. S. Lorenzo fuori le mura, 6. S. Croce in Gerusalemme, 7. S. Sebastiano fuori le mura. The Basilica of St. Sebastian was also originally a Station Church, but it has not been used as such for several centuries, perhaps on account of the great distance from the city. (Cf. P. Ausserer, Pilgerführer oder Wegweiser nach Rom S. 42 etc. — A. de Waal, Die Wallfahrt zu den sieben Hauptkirchen Roms S. 6 etc.) for in them were deposited the holy bodies of celebrated martyrs, and they were large enough to give admission to an extraordinary number of the faithful. — Originally the Station Churches were not definitely assigned for the particular days: announcements were made each time where the next Station would take place. St. Gregory the Great enhanced the solemnity of the Stations, limited them to specified days, attached them permanently to certain churches, and had them inscribed in the Sacramentarium, from which they were afterward copied into the Roman Missal.¹³⁰130Litanias, stationes et ecclesiasticum officium auxit (Brev. Rom. 12. Mart.). Stationes per Basilicas et Martyrium Coemeteria ordinavit: et sequebatur exercitus Domini Gregorium praeeuntem. Ductor coelestis militiae arma spiritualia proferebat. — Cf. Grisar S. J. in der Innsbrucker Theol. Zeitschrift 1885, S. 561 etc. — The present arrangement of the Stations, in its main points, comes from him; only a few churches received their Station-days from the Popes of a later epoch.¹³¹131At present there are still 111 Station-Devotions held, which are distributed among 87 days and 44 churches; frequently in one day several are kept (2–3), and the Stations recur often in one and the same church during the course of the year. — After the removal of their place of residence to Avignon (1305, or 1309) the Popes no longer took part in the Stations. With the exception of the absence of the Pope, divine worship is still held in the Station Churches, and with greater solemnity; on the specified days, especially in Lent, large assemblies gather in the Station Churches, to venerate the relics there exposed and to gain the indulgence of the Stations. — The greater penitential processions (Litaniae majores) on St. Mark’s Day (April 25) and the minor penitential processions (Litaniae minores) made through the fields on the three days before the Ascension, evidently resemble the ancient Station solemnities.

As Tertullian supposes it to be universally known,¹³²132Si statio de militari exemplo nomen accipit (nam et militia Dei sumus), utique nulla laetitia sive tristitia obveniens castris, stationes militum rescindit. Nam laetitia libentius, tristitia sollicitius administrabit disciplinam (Tertullian. De Orat. c. 19). the word Statio¹³³133Statio = the standing, the quiet and firm standing; especially = the guard, the watch, the watch-guard, the field-watch. — Statio primo et per se significat actum standi seu permanendi ad certum tempus in locis sacris orandi causa et publicos conventus fidelium ad orationem. — Secundo minus proprie significat loca seu templa, in quibus statio habetur. — Tertio significat orationem ipsam, quae fit in eisdem locis. — Tandem significat indulgentiam ibi orantibus concessam (Quarti, De Procession. sect. 2, punct. 14). passed from the language of the military into that of the p. 57Church: the above mentioned assemblies and practices of the Christians were called Stationes, because they bore a certain resemblance to the service of the sentinels. As “good soldiers of Jesus Christ” the faithful of those ancient times wished to keep guard, so to speak, in the house of God, in order to protect themselves against the snares and assaults of the infernal adversary; and to this end they persevered in fasting, prayer, reading, the recitation of the Psalms and the celebration of the Eucharist until None, namely, until three o’clock in the afternoon, in holy recollection (perstabant). In this manner did they confirm and strengthen themselves, in order not to hesitate and waver in life’s struggles and sufferings, but to “put on the armor of God,” that is, “to take the shield of faith, the helmet of salvation and the sword of the spirit, which is the word of God; by all prayer and supplication, praying at all times in the spirit, and in the same watching with all instance and supplication for all the saints—(Christians)” (Eph. 6, 11–18).

2. While at all times the unchangeable prayers at the foot of the altar form the general introduction to the whole celebration of the Mass, the variable Introit begins in a special manner the first, that is, the principal changeable part of its liturgy. This part does not directly touch upon the Sacrifice, but serves merely to prepare the way for the actual Sacrifice, by infusing into the minds of those present such holy thoughts, devout affections and good resolutions, as dispose them for the worthy celebration of the Divine Mysteries. Accordingly, it consists, on the one hand, of reading and instruction calculated to enliven and strengthen the faith; and, on the other hand, of prayer and chant to awaken and nourish devotion:¹³⁴134Introitus laudem Dei continet et ad honorem Altissimi cum modulatione cantatur, quatenus universorum adstantium corda in Dei amorem sanctamque devotionem excitentur et accendantur, ac per hoc toti sequenti officio cum fervore alacri jucunditate intersint (Dion. Carthus. Expos. Missae art. 8). for faith and devotion are, above all, required to derive fruit from the celebration of the Holy Mysteries.¹³⁵135Cf. in the Canon the words: quorum tibi fides cognita est et nota devotio. These prayers, Psalms and readings of the Introit vary principally according to the course and character of the ecclesiastical year; for they are intended to give suitable expression to the idea of the ecclesiastical celebration of the day or feast, which principally induces the offering of the Holy Sacrifice and is intimately connected therewith.

a) In its present form the Introit¹³⁶136Introitus—entrance, entering, introduction; then—beginning, prelude. — Interim (during the prayer at the foot of the altar) cantatur Antiphona ad Introitum, quae ab introitu sacerdotis ad altare hoc nomen meruit habere (Microlog. c. 1). is a Psalm abbreviated as much as possible; for it consists of psalm-verses with a Gloria Patri, which (like entire Psalms usually are) is introduced and concluded with an Antiphon.¹³⁷137The word Introitus has, in addition to the above, a still more varied signification in the liturgy. a) In the first place and originally, it signifies the solemn entrance of the celebrant into the church, the going from the sacristy to the altar; b) derivatively, the whole alternate chant of the choir, which comprises a greater number of Psalm-verses in addition to an Antiphon which was chanted at the entrance of the celebrant, or c) at times the Antiphon alone appertaining to this choir-chant, and d) in a more comprehensive sense, the Antiphon and Psalm-verse together with the Kyrie, Gloria and Collect. — The Antiphon is generally taken from the p. 58Psalter, often too from other books of the Old or New Testament, and only in a few instances is it composed expressly by the Church herself.¹³⁸138The Antiphons taken from the Psalms are called Introitus regulares, the others Introitus irregulares. Cfr. Durand. l. 4, c. 5. The Antiphon is, as a rule, though not in every case, followed by the beginning (the first verse) of a Psalm.¹³⁹139In many, especially in the newer, Mass formulas, not the first, but another appropriate Psalm-verse has been selected, for example, in the Missa de Sacrat. Spinea Corona D. N. I. Chr., de S. Ignatio Conf., de S. Francisco de Hieronymo. — If the first verse of a Psalm forms the Antiphon, then the next verse is added, for instance, Dominica XII. et XV. p. Pent., Missa votiva pro infirmis. — One and the same Antiphon is in different Masses often accompanied with different Psalm-verses, for example, the Antiphon Gaudeamus omnes in Domino on the feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and on the feast of All Saints. Only seldom, for instance, in the Requiem Mass and on the feast of St. Francis Xavier, two verses of the Psalm follow the Antiphon. Cfr. Guyet, Heortologia l. 3, c. 25, q. 2). — During the joyful Eastertide generally two, occasionally three, Allelujas are added to the Antiphon. In those Masses which do not have the Psalm Judica, the Gloria Patri is omitted after the verse of the Psalm. In the Gloria Patri, this solemn praise of the Blessed Trinity, there resounds an air of joy; hence it is omitted in the Masses of Passiontide and of Holy Week as well as in the Masses for the dead, in order to indicate the profound sorrow, affliction and grief of the Church.¹⁴⁰140The hymnus glorificationis essentially bears the impress of the joyous, and, therefore, as vox laetitiae et laudis (Rupert v. Deutz) must be partly or wholly silent in the liturgy of the sorrowful season. De responsoriis “Gloria Patri” subtrahimus et apud quosdam ad Missas quoque cum Introitu officii non dicitur (Rup. Tuit. V, 2).

The Mass of Holy Saturday and the principal Mass of the vigil of Pentecost, that is, the one which is preceded by the Prophecies (with or without the blessing of baptismal water) have no Introit.¹⁴¹141The other Masses of the vigil of Pentecost have an Introit; on the Easter vigil, on the contrary, the low Mass also is without an Introit, in this case such a one may be celebrated ex privilegio only (S. R. C. 22. Jul. 1848). The reason of this may be, that the foregoing chants, prayers and lessons were regarded as taking the place of the usual introductory Psalm, and consequently a further introductory chant could well be omitted.¹⁴²142Totus Introitus fuit omissus, ubi vel processio Missam antecessit vel officium quodpiam ante Missam fuit celebratum, quem morem hodiedum adhuc in Vigiliis Paschae et Pentecostes observari conspicimus. Introitus enim ad id solum institutus erat, ut populum occuparet, dum Celebrans veniebat ad altare; cum autem his diebus populus jam esset congregatus, et Pontifex de fontibus sive de baptisterio ad altare transiret, dum Litaniae vel Kyrie eleison canerentur, hinc illis finitis statim, “Gloria in excelsis” intonabat (Krazer Sect. IV, art. 1, cap. 1, § 217). On these days the preliminary solemnities constituted a p. 59whole or joint service with the Mass; hence the Ordinance of the Church laid down that one and the same celebrant should discharge the entire function, namely, the Mass together with the blessings.¹⁴³143S. R. C. 1. Sept. 1838.

Whilst the priest is saying the first words of the Introit, he makes the sign of the Cross, because the Introit forms the beginning of the variable Mass formula, that is, of the particular day or festal celebration.¹⁴⁴144Therefore, some Masses and Sundays also were named after the initial words of their respective Introit. Thus the Masses for the dead are called Requiem, and the Votive Mass in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Advent Rorate; the first five Sundays of Lent Invocavit, Reminiscere, Oculi, Laetare, Judica,—and the first four Sundays after Easter Quasimodo, Misericordias Domini, Jubilate, Cantate and the sixth Exaudi. — In Requiem Masses the celebrant does not make the sign of the Cross on himself, but over the Missal (super librum quasi aliquem benedicens—Rubr.), at the same time imploring from the Lord eternal rest and perpetual light for the departed souls; this sign of the Cross is, without doubt, not intended for the book, but for the suffering souls, that is, it would indicate that the fulness of the blessing of the Sacrifice may fall to their share. — The Introit is read on the Epistle side (cornu Epistolae), namely, on the left side of the altar¹⁴⁵145Since the fifteenth century the right and left sides of the altar have been named and considered with regard to the Crucifix placed in the centre, while previously—from the standing-place of the celebrant—precisely the opposite denomination was in practice. Cfr. Benedict. XIV. De Missae sacrific. l. 2, c. 4, n. 1. and with the hands joined before the breast, to signify and to manifest the priest’s prayerful disposition.

b) It yet remains for us to specify and explain more minutely the object and meaning of the Introit. As it is the introduction to the celebration of the particular feast or day, the Introit belongs to the variable component parts of the Mass-Rite, and is to be considered under the same aspect as the Gradual, Offertory and Communion verse.

These four pieces¹⁴⁶146For those parts of the Missal that are to be sung, as well as for the Antiphons and Responsories of the Breviary, the text of Itala (version of Scripture), somewhat differing from our Vulgate, is used, because the original and unalterable mode of chanting had always been intimately connected with it. belong to the chants, with which the choir, in the name of the people, accompany the sublime, divine tragedy of the Eucharistic Sacrifice. In their present form they are but brief remnants of longer chants, which consisted of whole Psalms or of an indefinite number of verses of the Psalms, and which were rendered while the priest was going to the altar (Introitus), or after the reading of the Epistle (Graduale), or while the faithful were presenting their offerings (Offertorium), or while they received Holy Communion (Communio). At the beginning of the fifth century p. 60these chants were already introduced into the Roman Church, but not all at the same time: the Communion chant was probably the most ancient, while the Introit Psalm was the latest.¹⁴⁷147The introduction of Psalm-singing at the beginning of Mass is ascribed to Pope Celestine I. (422–432). He ordained that for the beginning of Mass an entire Psalm or at least the greater part of a Psalm should be sung “antiphonatim,” that is, alternately by two choirs. Hic multa constituta fecit et constituit, ut psalmi David 150 ante sacrificium psallerentur antiphonatim (in two choirs) ab omnibus, quod ante non fiebat, nisi tantum epistola b. Pauli recitabatur et sanctum evangelium (Lib. pontif. ed. Duch. I, 230). Coelestinus Papa psalmos ad introitum Missae cantari instituit. De quibus Gregorius Papa postea Antiphonas (sung alternately) ad introitum Missae modulando composuit. Unde adhuc primus versus ejusdem psalmi ad introitum cantatur, qui olim totus ad introitum cantabatur (Honor. Augustod. Gemma animae l. 1, c. 87). — Probst seeks to prove, that Gelasius I. (492 to 496) was the first to order the antiphonal psalm-chants as an introduction to the celebration of the Mass (cf. Die abendländische Messe § 36). — The Ordo Roman. VII, n. 2 makes the first mention of the Antiphona ad Introitum. St. Gregory the Great had already abridged these choral chants, as may be seen from his Antiphonarium; they were later on simplified still more, such as they are at present to be found in the Missal.

Evidently these Psalms, or passages from the Psalms, did not find their way into each of the Mass formulas by chance or by mere fancy, but were inserted after judicious selection. The ecclesiastical year with its feasts and holy seasons, or the special, extraordinary occasion or intention of the Mass, suggested and determined their adoption. — The celebration of Mass is most intimately connected and interwoven with the mystical, marvellously arranged cycle of the holy year: Sacrificium and Officium, Missal and Breviary, mutually harmonize and complete each other, and both together make up the entire and perfect liturgical celebration of the holy days and seasons. Like the Breviary of the priest, the formula of the Mass is also intended to impress and represent from all sides the idea of the feast or the fundamental thoughts of the Sundays and week days. Hence it follows that the changeable chants of the Mass formulas were selected with a view to the appropriate celebration of the feast or day; this should always be had in mind as a guiding principle, in ascribing a natural, suitable and edifying liturgical relation and meaning to the choral chants taken from Scripture.¹⁴⁸148In addition to the Mass formulas found in the Proprium Missarum de tempore, in the Proprium Missarum de Sanctis and in the Commune Sanctorum, that is, besides the Masses celebrated secundum ordinem Officii, there is still a number of Masses celebrated extra ordinem Officii,—namely, Requiem and Votive Masses. In these the contents of the changeable formula are not regulated by the course of the ecclesiastical year, but according to the special intention for which the Sacrifice is principally offered.

What has just been said is especially applicable to the Introit.¹⁴⁹149In this all constraint and subtlety are to be avoided. In order correctly to conceive and explain each Psalm-verse in its connection with the entire Mass formula, it will, in many cases, be necessary, or at least to the purpose, to represent to one’s self the contents of the entire Psalm. p. 62Throughout its contents it is as full and varied as the liturgical year of the Church: joy, jubilation, sadness, sorrow, lamentation, hope, longing of the soul, fear, praise, thanksgiving, petition, deprecation,—in short, every religious sentiment with which the soul should be filled in the course of the ecclesiastical year, finds in the Introit brief and forcible expression. The Introit “seems intended to be the key-note to the whole service; which being one in its essence, yet adapts itself to all our wants, whether of propitiation or of thanksgiving, whether of evils to be averted or of blessings to be gained. Sometimes this introductory verse is loud and joyous,—Gaudeamus omnes in Domino; sometimes low and plaintive,—Miserere mihi, Domine, quoniam tribulor; in the Paschal solemnity the Alleluia rings through it all, like a peal of cheerful bells; in Passion-tide, even the Gloria Patri is silent, and it falls melancholy and dull; when a saint is commemorated, the nature of his virtues and triumphs is at once proclaimed; if it be a festival of Our Lord, the mystery which it celebrates is solemnly announced” (Wiseman).

The Introit strikes the tone and note proper for the ecclesiastical day and Mass:¹⁵⁰150Introitus Missae cum magna devotione cantandus est sive legendus, et ipsa cordis affectio ad Deum sollicite dirigenda. Et quia dispersio cordis ad alia devotionem hanc tollit, propterea sacerdos, antequam Missam inchoat, debet Introitum legendum praescire, et dicenda atque agenda in promptu praenoscere, ne talia quaerendo distractionem et indevotionem incurrat (Dion. Carthus. l. c.). the chord thus struck sounds again after shorter or longer intervals,—in the Gradual as well as in the Offertory and Communion. As the variable prayers and didactical readings also harmonize with these pieces of chant, there pervades throughout the whole Mass a uniform fundamental tone, namely, the idea of the feast or the thought of the day.

3. The ecclesiastical year begins with Advent; the time of the expectation of salvation, the time of preparation for the coming of the Lord and His redemption. The redeeming advent of the Lord is principally threefold: His descent on earth in the mystery of the Incarnation, His entrance into hearts by grace and His return again to judge mankind at the end of time. “The first Advent is humble and hidden, the second is secret and full of love, the third will be public and full of terror.”¹⁵¹151Primus adventus fuit occultus et humilis; secundus est secretus et amabilis; tertius erit manifestus et terribilis. In primo enim venit ad nos, ut in secundo veniret in nos; in secundo venit in nos, ne in tertio veniret contra nos. In primo adventu fecit misericordiam; in secundo dat gratiam; in tertio dabit gloriam (Petr. Blesens. Serm. 3 de Adventu Domini). In the liturgy the first advent of Christ in His birth in the stable of Bethlehem is principally celebrated; as the season of Advent advances, the sentiments of the Church go on increasing in joy and longing, and thus find their corresponding expression in the Introit of the four Sunday Masses.

On the First Sunday of Advent the Church prays:

On this Sunday the Gospel reminds us of the end of the world, of the coming of the Judge of the World in all majesty; hence we raise our hearts and minds above the perishable things of this world and look up to God, our last end, and to Christ, “the eternal light of the faithful” (aeterna lux credentium). Full of confidence in God, we implore His assistance and protection against all the adversaries of salvation, His direction and guidance likewise to walk in the way of virtue and in the path of perfection, so that we may be able hopefully to look forward to the advent of the Judge of the World.

On the Second Sunday of Advent:

Joy increases with the promise made that the Lord Himself will come to redeem us. As the Good Shepherd He will come upon earth to seek and to save the lost sheep: “I will feed my sheep”—thus He says—“and I will cause them to lie down. I will seek that which was lost; and that which was driven away, I will bring back again; I will strengthen that which was weak” (Ezech. 34, 15–16). This utterance of the Good Shepherd so full of sweetness and power ought to console, encourage and rejoice our poor hearts.

On the Third Sunday of Advent:

The heart quickens and pulsates more joyfully now that “the Lord is already so near” (Prope est jam Dominus); consoled and filled with confidence, we may cast all our cares and troubles on the Lord, since He watches over us with a paternal love, shielding and defending us. He will come to break the chains of sin and of the passions, and to impart to us the blessing of redemption.

Finally, the Introit for the Fourth Sunday of Advent runs thus:

The longing for the Saviour, who is to come, reaches the highest point: in the words of the Prophet the Church addresses her Advent cry to Heaven and earth, that they give unto us the Promised Redeemer. Soon “He shall come down like rain upon the fleece and as showers falling gently upon the earth” (Ps. 71, 6). Like unto a wonderfully refreshing rain, descending on and watering a burnt up land, will the Lord by His word and by the graces of His redemption raise up and make happy the weary, wounded hearts. Like “the flower of the field and the lily of the valley,” He will bud forth from the earth, that is, He will come forth from Mary’s virginal pure womb. The work of the Incarnation reflects the perfection and the glory of God a thousand times more resplendently than does the firmament with its innumerable starry worlds.

On the Vigil of Christmas the Church announces to us:

In these words¹⁵²152The biblical text (Exodus 16, 6–7) is as follows: Vespere scietis, quod Dominus eduxerit vos de terra Aegypti, et mane videbitis gloriam Domini. — Thus Moses and Aaron announced to the people of Israel the downpour of Manna. The Church now freely employs this passage of the Bible to announce to us the true Manna and Bread of Angels, that is, the Son of God become man. does the Church proclaim the early appearance p. 65of the Saviour so ardently longed for. He comes under the form of a poor babe, although He is the Lord and Owner of the universe.

Regard for the newly baptized converts had the greatest influence on the contents of the liturgy for the Easter Week.¹⁵³153Baptismalia celebrantur officia (Durand. Ration. l. 4, c. 94). The Resurrection of the Lord is a figure of the spiritual resurrection of the soul from death and from the grave of sin to the glory of the new life of grace. Now while the Introit of the feast of Easter places the glory and the beauty of the Risen Saviour before our eyes, the Introits of Easter Week present in picturesque language to the contemplation of the soul the blessed effects and graces of holy baptism. This celebration is included on Low Sunday, the Introit of which is as follows:

The above admonition of the Prince of the Apostles applies not only to the newly baptized, the first Communicants, and the newly converted, but in general to all Christians who have been regenerated by the holy Sacrament of Baptism, and who must become as children in order to enter into the kingdom of heaven. Christians should become children in a spiritual manner, that is, be full of innocence, simplicity, guilelessness, purity, docility, humility and obedience. That they may grow in all Christian knowledge, virtue and perfection, they must have conceived a lively and earnest desire for the “spiritual and pure milk,”¹⁵⁴154In the West for centuries it was the custom to present to the newly baptized a mixture of milk and honey to drink (mellis et lactis societas—Tertull. adv. Marc. l. 1, c. 15), to indicate thereby the spiritual infancy (ad infantiae significationem—Hieron.) obtained by their regeneration, and to express, that by baptism they were introduced into the true “land flowing with milk and honey,” that is, into the Catholic Church. (Cf. the Introit in fer. II. p. Pascha). namely, for the pure, healthy and sweet nourishment of the spirit, which the Church offers to them in the treasures of her truth and grace. For the bestowal of such blessings we should rejoice and give thanks to God.

The Introit for the Feast of the Immaculate Conception runs thus:

These verses make up a hymn of thanksgiving, of praise, of triumph in the mouth of Mary, the Immaculate Virgin and Mother of God. As the Immaculate One conceived without sin, she was enriched with the fulness of gifts, graces and virtues. In the first moment of her existence she found favor with the Lord, who endowed her with power to crush the head of the infernal serpent, and to gain a complete victory over the prince of darkness.

On the Feast of Holy Confessors the Church sings at the Introit:

This Antiphon depicts in an excellent manner the life of the just on earth, as full of graces and virtues, and their imperishable glory in heaven. The palm, as the queen of trees, presents in its majestic height, widespreading branches and evergreen foliage an admirable figure of the holy life of the just man, elevated in spirit above all that is grovelling and low, ever rejoicing in the sunshine of eternal truth, and constantly tending upward from the perishable to the imperishable, from earth to heaven. — The other simile of the cedar, which with its massive, apparently indestructible and fragrant growth towers aloft, the pride of Mount Libanus, completes the comparison in a charming and lovely manner by the traits of its strength, and of its durability. God’s saints, planted by the Heavenly Father within the “portals of the house of God,” that is, in the well-watered garden of the Church, grow and strive heavenward in the sunshine of peace as well as amid the storms of temptation, where “in the house of God,” that is, in the kingdom of undisturbed splendor and glory, they flourish ever green and blossom eternally.¹⁵⁵155Cf. Reischl zu Psalm 91. — Eberhard, Kanzelvorträge II, 449. Therefore, it is our pleasant and wholesome duty gratefully to praise and magnify the Most High, who is so wonderful in His saints.

Requiem Masses have the following Introit:

The principal object of the Requiem Mass is to implore for the suffering souls eternal rest and perpetual light, that is, rest in the bosom of God and the light of heavenly glory. — On the lips of the suffering souls in purgatory, this verse of the Psalm expresses their longing to be allowed admission to sing to the Lord in the heavenly Sion the blessed hymn of praise and thanksgiving, and there to be enabled perfectly to fulfil their vow to God, the first and irrevocable vow made, the baptismal vow (votum). They made this vow already at the beginning of their earthly pilgrimage; but they shall fulfil it perfectly only in their true home, in the heavenly Jerusalem, in God’s city of the perfect and the glorified. The supplication for entrance into the kingdom of eternal peace, the Lord will grant so much the sooner, since “all flesh,” that is, the whole human family, “is to come to Him”; for it is His will that all men attain salvation and reach heaven.